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Ninoy Aquino International Airport

Coordinates: 14°30′30″N 121°01′11″E / 14.50833°N 121.01972°E / 14.50833; 121.01972
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(Redirected from Manila Domestic Airport)
"Manila Airport" redirects here. For other uses, see Manila Airport (disambiguation).
For the current military use of this facility, see Villamor Air Base. For the previous military use of this facility, see Nichols Field.

Ninoy Aquino International Airport

Paliparang Pandaigdig ng Ninoy Aquino
Aerial view of NAIA from northeast in 2023.
Summary
Airport typePublic / Military
OwnerManila International Airport Authority
OperatorNew NAIA Infrastructure Corporation
ServesGreater Manila Area
LocationParañaque and Pasay, Metro Manila, Philippines
Opened1948; 76 years ago (1948)
Hub for
Operating base for
Built1919; 105 years ago (1919)
Time zonePHT (UTC+08:00)
Elevation AMSL23 m / 75 ft
Coordinates14°30′30″N 121°01′11″E / 14.50833°N 121.01972°E / 14.50833; 121.01972
Websitewww.newnaia.com.ph
Maps
Map
MNL/RPLL is located in Metro Manila
MNL/RPLL
MNL/RPLL
MNL/RPLL is located in Luzon
MNL/RPLL
MNL/RPLL
MNL/RPLL is located in Philippines
MNL/RPLL
MNL/RPLL
MNL/RPLL is located in Southeast Asia
MNL/RPLL
MNL/RPLL
MNL/RPLL is located in Asia
MNL/RPLL
MNL/RPLL
Map
Runways
Direction Length Surface
m ft
06/24[a] 3,737 12,260 Asphalt
13/31[b] 2,258 7,408 Asphalt/Concrete
Statistics (2023)
Passengers45,299,607
Increase 46.31%
Aircraft movements270,911
Increase 9.80%
Cargo (in tonnes)485,879.38
Increase 20.65%

Ninoy Aquino International Airport (NAIA /nɑː.ˈiː.jə/ NA-ee-YAH; Filipino: Paliparang Pandaigdig ng Ninoy Aquino; IATA: MNL, ICAO: RPLL), also known as Manila International Airport (MIA), is the main international airport serving Metro Manila in the Philippines. Located between the cities of Pasay and Parañaque, about 7 kilometers (4.3 mi) south of Manila proper and southwest of Makati, it is the main gateway for travelers to the Philippines and serves as a hub for PAL Express and Philippine Airlines. It is also the main operating base for AirSWIFT, Cebgo, Cebu Pacific, and Philippines AirAsia.

Manila International Airport was officially renamed for former Philippine senator Benigno "Ninoy" Aquino Jr.,[3] who was assassinated at the airport on August 21, 1983. NAIA is managed by the Manila International Airport Authority (MIAA), an agency of the Department of Transportation (DOTr).[4] It is currently operated by the New NAIA Infrastructure Corporation (NNIC), a subsidiary of San Miguel Corporation.

NAIA and Clark International Airport in Clark Freeport Zone, Pampanga, both serve the greater metropolitan area. Clark caters mainly to low-cost carriers because its landing fees have been lower ever since former president Gloria Macapagal Arroyo called for Clark to replace NAIA as the Philippines' primary airport.[5] NAIA is operating beyond its designed capacity of 35 million passengers, clogging air traffic and delaying flights.[6] As a result, it has consistently been ranked as one of the world's worst airports,[7][8][9][10] and still does to this day.[11] A private consortium has been overseeing the airport's operation and rehabilitation since September 14, 2024.[12] Additionally, two nearby airports are under construction to reduce congestion at NAIA: New Manila International Airport in Bulakan, Bulacan and Sangley Point Airport in Cavite City.[13]

In 2023, NAIA served 45.3 million passengers, forty-seven percent more than the previous year, making it the busiest airport in the Philippines.[14]

History

[edit]
Nichols Field runway, currently Runway 13/31, with Pasay and Manila in the background, taken prior to 1941

Early history

[edit]

Manila's original airport, Grace Park Airfield (also known as Manila North) in Grace Park, Caloocan (then a municipality of Rizal), opened in 1935. It was the city's first commercial airport and was used by the Philippine Aerial Taxi Company (later Philippine Airlines) for its first domestic routes.[15]

In July 1937, Nielson Airport, located in the 45-hectare (4,800,000 sq ft) land in Makati, also then in Rizal, was inaugurated and served as the gateway to Manila; its runways now form Ayala Avenue and Paseo de Roxas.[16] Following World War II and Philippine independence, Grace Park Airfield closed, while Nielson Airport continued to operate until it was decommissioned in 1948.

Move to Nichols Field site

[edit]

Airport operations were moved to the current site, Nichols Field, due to the flatter terrain, expanse of greenfield land, and the existing USAF base runway (Runway 13/31), which could be used for the airport.[17] The original one-story bungalow terminal was built adjacent to the runway and serves as the present-day Terminal 4.

In 1954, the airport's longer international runway (Runway 06/24) and associated taxiways were built, and in 1956, construction was started on a control tower and an international terminal building. The new terminal was designed by Federico Ilustre and was built on the current site of Terminal 2. It was inaugurated on September 22, 1961.[18] On January 22, 1972, a fire caused substantial damage to the terminal, resulting in six casualties.[19]

A slightly smaller terminal was built the following year. This second terminal would serve as the country's international terminal until 1981 when it was converted to a domestic terminal, upon the completion and opening of Terminal 1, a new, higher-capacity terminal.[20] Another fire damaged the old international terminal in May 1985.

Assassination of Ninoy Aquino

[edit]
Main article: Assassination of Ninoy Aquino

On August 21, 1983, oppositionist politician Ninoy Aquino attempted to return to the Philippines from exile in the United States, in a bid to convince president Ferdinand Marcos to let go of political power after having held his position for nearly two decades.[21][22] Aquino was assassinated mere moments after exiting his plane at Terminal 1's Gate 8 (now Gate 11) after returning to the Philippines from exile in the United States. Aviation Security Command (AVSECOM) personnel escorted Aquino out of the plane to the tarmac, where an agency van awaited. A single gunshot killed him. Several shots were fired, killing alleged assassin, Rolando Galman. Seconds later, gunfire erupted, causing chaos in the plane, the tarmac, and the terminal.

The incident triggered constant protests for the next three years, and along with the crash of the Philippine economy earlier in 1983, is credited as one of the key events which led to the February 1986 People Power Revolution which removed Marcos from power.[23][24]

Renaming

[edit]

Four years after the incident, during the presidency of Ninoy's widow Corazon Aquino in 1987, Republic Act No. 6639 was enacted without executive approval,[3] renaming the airport in Ninoy's honor.[25] Presently, a body mark of Aquino's assassination is on display at the departures area, while the spot at Gate 8 where he was killed has a memorial plaque.[26] Due to this event, Terminal 1 is nicknamed the "Ninoy Aquino Terminal."

Construction of Terminals 2 and 3

[edit]

Plans for a new terminal were conceived in 1989 when the Department of Transportation commissioned the French company Aéroports de Paris to conduct a feasibility study to expand capacity, which recommended to build two new terminals. Construction of Terminal 2, originally designed as a domestic terminal, began in 1995 and opened in 1999.[27] It served as the hub of Philippine Airlines until 2023. Meanwhile, the larger Terminal 3, which was beset by construction delays and legal issues,[28] opened in 2008 and became fully operational in 2014, serving Cebu Pacific and most international airlines.[29]

Extortion scam

[edit]
Main article: 2015 Ninoy Aquino International Airport bullet planting scandal

In October 2015, reports of an extortion scam concerning bullets planted by airport security officials in airline passengers' luggage (dubbed by the local media the tanim-bala [literally plant-bullet] scam) spread, creating a scare among travelers.[30] Former Davao City mayor Rodrigo Duterte, then a presumptive presidential candidate in the 2016 Philippine presidential election, further alleged that a syndicate was behind the incidents. Duterte said the operation had continued for more than two years.[31] Malacañang Palace and the Philippine Senate investigated the incidents.[32][33] In April 2016, a similar incident occurred.[34]

Terminal reassignments

[edit]
Airbus A320 family aircraft of Cebu Pacific and Philippines AirAsia at the remote gates of Terminal 3 in November 2021, two years before the rationalization of flights which relocated AirAsia's domestic flights to Terminal 2.

In February 2018, the Department of Transportation (DOTr) proposed the rationalization of flights to decongest the terminals of NAIA. The original plan called for Terminals 1 and 3 exclusively handling international flights, while Terminals 2 and 4 would facilitate domestic flights. This revision would deviate from the practice where Terminals 2 and 3 operate both domestic and international flights, contributing to the congestion of both terminals.[35] Transportation Secretary Arthur Tugade and House Speaker Pantaleon Alvarez supported the initiative, with the latter proposing that airlines relocate some of their flights to Clark International Airport.[35] However, Senator Grace Poe, chairperson of the Senate Committee on Public Services, voiced concerns that a hasty implementation might exacerbate existing issues, with Poe suggesting capacity expansion instead. She further highlighted Terminal 2's limited capacity of handling 9 million passengers compared to the current demand of over 16 million domestic passengers.[36]

Despite initial plans for implementation in August 2018, the Manila International Airport Authority (MIAA) announced its deferment a month prior due to "unforeseen operational constraints". The plan continued to be under review with no official implementation date set;[37] however, some Philippine Airlines (PAL) flights to North America were relocated to Terminal 1 from Terminal 2 in July to accommodate the latter's rehabilitation.[37] By October, four international airlines transferred operations to Terminal 3, freeing up space for United States flight operations at Terminal 1. Subsequently, more airlines from Terminal 1 were scheduled to relocate to Terminal 3.[38]

On December 1, 2022, the MIAA officially implemented the Schedule and Terminal Assignment Rationalization (STAR) program, when PAL began gradually transferring its international flights from Terminal 2 to Terminal 1. Likewise, Philippines AirAsia transferred its two busiest flights (Boracay–Caticlan and Cebu)—from Terminal 4 to Terminal 3, to ease congestion at the former by transferring forty percent of AirAsia's daily passenger volume to the larger terminal.[39] From April to June 2023, eight foreign airlines moved to Terminal 3 to make space for PAL's international operations at T1.[40][41] These changes were designed to offer international passengers at Terminals 1 and 3 a wider selection of food and retail outlets, and additional time for duty-free shopping.[42] After PAL completed moving all its international flights to T1 on June 16, 2023,[43] Philippines AirAsia and Royal Air Philippines began operating from Terminal 2 on July 1, thereby reverting the terminal to its original domestic design. While T2 is being expanded, Cebu Pacific's domestic and international operations remained at Terminal 3.[44] Meanwhile, flights of AirSWIFT, SkyJet Airlines, Cebgo, and Sunlight Air remained at Terminal 4.

Ahead of the airport's privatization, the New NAIA Infrastructure Corporation—a consortium led by San Miguel Corporation—planned another set of terminal reassignments in August 2024, with an initial target implementation date before the Allhallowtide season.[45] It then announced in September the planned reassignments: Terminal 1 would exclusively serve Philippine Airlines flights, while Terminal 2 would maintain its current status as an all-domestic terminal, and Terminal 3 would be fully dedicated to international flights of Cebu Pacific, the AirAsia Group, and all foreign airlines. This would require the remaining airlines operating at Terminal 1 to transfer to Terminal 3, and Philippines AirAsia to temporarily move its domestic flights back to Terminal 4 from Terminal 2 to accommodate Cebu Pacific's domestic flights until the latter's expansion is completed.[46]

Privatization and rehabilitation

[edit]
Logo used alternatively

On February 12, 2018, a consortium of seven conglomerates consisting of Aboitiz InfraCapital, AC Infrastructure Holdings, Alliance Global, Asia's Emerging Dragon, Filinvest Development Corporation, JG Summit Holdings, and Metro Pacific Investments Corporation (which later pulled out in March 2020) submitted a ₱350 billion, or US$6.75 billion, 35-year unsolicited proposal to rehabilitate, expand, operate, and maintain the airport.[47][48] The consortium's proposal was divided into two phases: the improvement and expansion of terminals in the current NAIA land area and the development of an additional runway, taxiways, passenger terminals, and associated support infrastructure. Changi Airport Consultants Pte. Ltd., was to provide technical support.[49] Singapore's Changi Airport Group eyed a 30-percent stake in this venture.[50]

On March 1, 2018, Megawide Construction Corporation and its India-based consortium partner GMR Infrastructure (the consortium which revamped Mactan–Cebu International Airport), submitted a ₱150 billion, or US$3 billion, proposal to decongest and redevelop the airport.[51][52] GMR-Megawide did not propose a new runway, claiming that it would not significantly boost capacity.[52]

On July 7, 2020, the NAIA consortium's proposal was rejected by the government,[53] allowing GMR-Megawide to take over the project.[54] On December 15, however, the MIAA revoked the original proponent status (OPS) of GMR-Megawide, who then filed a motion for reconsideration.[55] The MIAA denied the motion for reconsideration.[56] In August 2022, the Department of Transportation (DOTr) announced plans to rebid the public–private partnership project within the year.[57]

Following a major airspace closure on January 1, 2023, plans to privatize the airport were pitched again. Secretary of Finance Benjamin Diokno supported such plans, but maintained that it should be "thoroughly studied".[58] On April 27, the Manila International Airport Consortium (MIAC), composed of six organizations (Alliance Global, AC Infrastructure Holdings Corp [under Ayala Corporation], Infracorp Development, Filinvest Development Corporation, and JG Summit Infrastructure Holdings) submitted a ₱100 billion 25-year unsolicited proposal to rehabilitate the airport.[59][60] This proposal was subsequently rejected by the administration of President Bongbong Marcos on July 19, which opted to go through a solicited bidding instead.[61]

The solicited concession agreement is set for fifteen years,[61] with a ten-year extension if needed in case the opening of New Manila International Airport in Bulacan and Sangley Point Airport in Cavite would be delayed.[62] The bidding opened on August 23, 2023.[63] Four consortia submitted bids on the December 27 deadline: MIAC, Asian Airports Consortium (consisting of Lucio Co's Cosco Capital, Inc.; Asian Infrastructure and Management Corp., Philippine Skylanders International, Inc., and PT Angkasa Pura II),[64] GMR Airports Consortium, and SMC SAP & Co. Consortium, a consortium led by San Miguel Corporation (SMC) and Incheon International Airport Corporation—the operator of Incheon International Airport in South Korea, with RMM Asian Logistics Inc. and RLW Aviation Development Inc.[65] The Asian Airports Consortium was disqualified in the bidding after it was deemed non-compliant.[66]

On February 16, 2024, the DOTr awarded the contract to SMC SAP & Co. Consortium, later renamed as New NAIA Infrastructure Corporation (NNIC).[67] the contract was signed on March 18, witnessed by President Marcos.[68][69] NNIC offered the biggest revenue share with the government at 82.16 percent—more than double the proposed revenue shares of GMR Airports Consortium (33.30 percent) and MIAC (25.91 percent).[64] The consortium also made the initial ₱30 billion payment to the government. With the privatization, the national government is expected to earn ₱900 billion, or ₱36 billion annually.[70] On September 14, 2024, the Manila International Airport Authority turned over the operations and maintenance of the airport to NNIC.[71] While SMC is constructing New Manila International Airport (NMIA) in Bulacan, it decided to instead prioritize the rehabilitation of NAIA over the construction of the NMIA.[72]

The turnover was followed by a series of airport fee hikes. On October 1, NNIC increased parking fees. The overnight parking fees, which quadrupled from 300 to 1,200 pesos, drew criticism from motorists; however, both NNIC and the DOTr defended the move, as it is designed to deter the misuse of parking slots. According to NNIC, previous parking rates were used by non-passengers, which contributed to congestion. Nevertheless, NNIC is developing a 4-hectare (9.9-acre) area near Terminal 3 for a 2,500-slot parking space.[73] On the same day, it increased takeoff and landing fees,[74] causing Philippine Airlines, Cebu Pacific, and Philippines AirAsia to propose a "terminal enhancement fee" to cover the higher fees, pending approval of the Civil Aeronautics Board.[75] Additionally, passenger service charges are expected to increase in September 2025 — the first increase since 2000.[76]

Terminals

[edit]

Ninoy Aquino International Airport has four passenger terminals, with plans to build another terminal.[77]

Passenger terminal infrastructure
Terminal Opened Floor area Handling capacity Parking bays
Terminal 1 March 4, 1982 73,000 m2 (790,000 sq ft) 6 million passengers per year 16 (aerobridge)
5 (remote)
Terminal 2 1999 77,800 m2 (837,000 sq ft) 10 million passengers per year 12 (aerobridge)
13 (remote)
Terminal 3 July 22, 2008 182,500 m2 (1,964,000 sq ft) 13 million passengers per year 20 (aerobridge)
11 (remote)
Terminal 4 1948 7,000 m2 (75,000 sq ft) 3 million passengers per year 10 (remote)
Total — 340,300 m2 (3,663,000 sq ft) 32 million passengers per year 46 (aerobridge)
41 (remote)

Terminal 1

[edit]
Front façade of Terminal 1 (Ninoy Aquino Terminal)

Covering 73,000 square meters (790,000 sq ft), Terminal 1 of the Ninoy Aquino International Airport was designed to handle six million passengers annually. It is often referred to as the Ninoy Aquino Terminal, as it was the site of the former senator's assassination in 1983. The terminal, opened in 1982,[20] is the airport's second oldest and exclusively handles international flights.

The development of the Manila International Airport, which includes Terminal 1, was approved by Executive Order No. 381 immediately after the former airport was destroyed by a fire a month earlier.[78] The project's feasibility study and master plan were conducted by the Airways Engineering Corporation in 1973, supported by a US$29.6 million loan from the Asian Development Bank (ADB).[79] The detailed engineering design was created by Renardet-Sauti/Transplan/F.F. Cruz Consultant, and the architectural design was developed by Leandro Locsin's L.V. Locsin and Associates.[80] In 1974, the designs were approved by the Philippine government and the ADB. Construction began in the second quarter of 1978 on a site close to the original Manila Airport, within the jurisdiction of Parañaque, then a municipality of Metro Manila.

Back façade of Terminal 1

By 1991, Terminal 1 reached its capacity with a total passenger volume of 4.53 million. From that year, the terminal has been over capacity, recording an annual average growth rate of 11%.[80] To accommodate this, improvements have been made, increasing its capacity to six million passengers.[81]

From 2011 to 2013, Terminal 1 was ranked among the worst airports in Asia by the travel website The Guide to Sleeping In Airports.[7] As a result, plans were developed to rehabilitate the terminal, including expanding the arrival area, adding parking spaces, and enhancing facilities.[82] Renovations began on January 23, 2014.[83] Part of the project involved the installation of buckling restrained braces to enhance the building's structural integrity.[84]

Terminal 1 once served almost all foreign-based carriers (except All Nippon Airways). After the full completion of the larger Terminal 3 in 2014, eighteen airlines moved to the larger terminal to decongest Terminal 1.[85][40] Since June 16, 2023, flag carrier Philippine Airlines uses Terminal 1 as its international hub.[40] Low-cost carrier Royal Air Philippines also uses the terminal for its international flights. Other airlines operating at Terminal 1 include Air China, Air Niugini, Asiana Airlines, China Airlines, China Eastern Airlines, EVA Air, Japan Airlines, Korean Air, Kuwait Airways, Malaysia Airlines, Oman Air, Royal Brunei Airlines, Saudia, Shenzhen Airlines, Vietnam Airlines, XiamenAir, and Zipair Tokyo.[86]

Terminal 2

[edit]
Terminal 2 south wing

Terminal 2, situated at the end of the old MIA Road (now NAIA Road), covers an area of 75,000 square meters (810,000 sq ft). Construction began in December 1995,[87] and the terminal started operating in 1999. It received the name Centennial Terminal in commemoration of the centennial year of Philippine independence. French company Aéroports de Paris (ADP) initially designed the terminal for domestic use, but later modified the design to accommodate international flights.[88] With 12 jet bridges, the terminal can accommodate 2.5 million passengers per year in its north wing and five million in its south wing, for a total of 7.5 million passengers per year.[88] After its conversion to a domestic terminal in 2023, its capacity was increased to ten million.[40][89]

The airport's control tower in front of Terminal 2

The French government funded a study that led to the terminal's construction and submitted the review to the Philippine government in 1990.[80] In 1991, the French government provided a 30-million-franc soft loan to the Philippine government to fund the detailed architectural and engineering design. ADP finished the design in 1992. The Japanese government followed suit in 1994, providing an ¥18.12-billion soft loan to the Philippine government to finance 75% of the construction costs and the entirety of the supervision costs. The construction of the terminal officially began on December 11, 1995, and the Philippine government took over the completed terminal on December 28, 1998. The terminal became fully operational in 1999.[90]

In August 2014, authorities announced a plan to expand Terminal 2, incorporating a structure to interconnect Terminals 1 and 2.[91] In order to do so, the plan called for demolishing the adjacent unused Philippine Village Hotel complex and relocating a fuel depot, as well as the international cargo complex.[92] Rehabilitation of the terminal began in September 2018,[93] and by February 16, 2021, the partially expanded Terminal 2 was inaugurated, adding 2,800 square meters (30,000 sq ft) to the terminal area. However, Terminal 2 has not been interconnected with Terminal 1 yet, nor have the adjacent complexes been demolished.[94] In 2024, the New NAIA Infrastructure Corporation (NNIC) announced that it will interconnect the two terminals after demolishing the hotel and relocating the fuel farm and the cargo terminal as part of its rehabilitation plan. This plan will increase the terminal's capacity by about 23 million passengers.[95]

From 1999 to 2023, flag carrier Philippine Airlines and its domestic subsidiary PAL Express exclusively used Terminal 2. It facilitated both domestic and international flights for these airlines, notwithstanding the operation of select PAL Express flights from Terminal 3 from 2012 to 2018.[96] On June 16, 2023, PAL moved its international flights to Terminal 1, leaving its domestic flights at Terminal 2. This allowed the entry of low-cost carriers and former Terminal 4 users Philippines AirAsia and Royal Air Philippines on July 1, thereby converting T2 to exclusively serve domestic flights.[40]

Terminal 3

[edit]
Terminal 3 departure drop-off
Domestic airside of Terminal 3

Terminal 3, the newest and largest terminal, covers 182,500 square meters (1,964,000 sq ft) and extends 1.2 kilometers (0.75 mi),[88] occupying a 63.5-hectare (157-acre) site on Villamor Air Base. With construction beginning in 1997, the terminal partially opened on July 22, 2008,[97] increasing the airport's capacity by 13 million passengers.[98] The terminal's development, part of the 1989 expansion plan, commenced in 1997 but was beleaguered by legal battles, red tape, and arbitration cases in the United States and Singapore, as well as technical and safety issues including repeated incidents of collapsed ceilings[99] that led to repeated delays.[28] Japan-based Takenaka Corporation undertook the terminal's rehabilitation, and it became fully operational on July 31, 2014.[100][29]

The construction of a third terminal was proposed by Asia's Emerging Dragon Corporation (AEDP).[101] AEDP eventually lost the bid to PairCargo and its partner Fraport AG of Germany.[101] Originally scheduled to open in 2002, a contract dispute between the government of the Philippines and the project's main contractor, Philippine International Air Terminals Co. Inc. (Piatco), delayed its completion.[28] While the original agreement allowed PairCargo and Fraport AG to operate the airport for several years after its construction, followed by a government handover, the government offered to buy out Fraport AG for US$400 million, to which Fraport agreed. However, before the terminal could be completed, President Gloria Macapagal Arroyo called the contract "onerous" and formed a committee to evaluate the buyout agreement. The contracts were declared null and void by the Supreme Court in May 2003,[102] the Philippine government took over the terminal in December 2004.[103] Piatco sued the Philippine government before the International Chamber of Commerce (ICC), while Fraport separately sued the government at the International Center for the Settlement of Investment Disputes (ICSID).[104] The ICSID decided in August 2007 in favor of the government, while in January 2012, the ICC case became final and executory in favor of the government.[105]

Skidmore, Owings and Merrill (SOM) designed the US$640 million terminal, which has 20 jet bridges and four remote gates served by apron buses. The terminal's apron area spans 147,400 square meters (1,587,000 sq ft) and can service up to 32 aircraft simultaneously.[106] It has the capacity to serve 33,000 passengers per day or 6,000 per hour.[107] Since April 2017, a 220-meter (720 ft) long indoor footbridge called Runway Manila has been connecting the terminal to Newport City.[108]

Low-cost carrier Cebu Pacific was the first to operate at Terminal 3 on July 22, 2008.[97] PAL Express (then Air Philippines and Airphil Express) followed suit,[109] and used it until 2018.[96] The first foreign carrier to operate out of Terminal 3 was All Nippon Airways[110] on February 27, 2011.[111] From August to October 2014, Delta Air Lines[112] (later terminated in 2021),[113] KLM, Emirates, Singapore Airlines, and Cathay Pacific moved to Terminal 3.[106] Between 2018 and 2020, United Airlines, Qantas, Qatar Airways, Turkish Airlines,[114] and Etihad Airways followed suit, as did Jetstar Asia, Jetstar Japan, Scoot, China Southern Airlines, Starlux Airlines (later terminated in March 2024), Jeju Air, Ethiopian Airlines, Thai Airways International, and Gulf Air in 2023. Other operators at Terminal 3 include new entrants Aero K, Greater Bay Airlines, and HK Express.[115] Terminal 3 has also been used by the AirAsia Group for its international flights since September 15, 2014.[116]

The expanded Overseas Filipino Worker airport lounge is located near Gate 7.[117]

Terminal 4

[edit]
Exterior of Terminal 4
Pre-departure area of Terminal 4

Constructed in 1948, Terminal 4, also known as the Manila Domestic Passenger Terminal or the Old Domestic Terminal, is the first and original structure of the airport, as well as its oldest and smallest terminal.[118] Positioned on the old Airport Road, the Domestic Terminal is located near the north end of Runway 13/31.[119]

Philippines AirAsia was a primary user of Terminal 4 from 2013 to 2023. In December 2022, to decongest the terminal, it transferred its two busiest flights—to Cebu and Boracay (Caticlan)—to Terminal 3, while all other domestic flights remained at T4.[120] It continued to operate under this scheme until all flights were transferred to Terminal 2 on July 1, 2023.[40] However, Philippines AirAsia is reportedly moving back to Terminal 4 on March 1, 2025, as part of long-term terminal reassignments conducted by the NNIC.[121]

Since then, T4 has been specifically assigned for turboprop aircraft, functioning exclusively with ground-loaded gates.[122] This terminal, which accommodates up to three million passengers annually, primarily hosts domestic flights by regional airlines such as AirSWIFT, SkyJet Airlines, Cebgo, and Sunlight Air.[123][40]

In response to the COVID-19 pandemic, the airport authority closed Terminal 4 to minimize operating costs, while the remaining three terminals resumed operations in June 2020 upon the lifting of the enhanced community quarantine in Luzon.[124] During its temporary closure, the terminal was utilized as a vaccination site for airport employees. As such, AirAsia temporarily transferred its domestic operations to Terminal 3. After a two-year hiatus, Terminal 4 reopened on March 28, 2022.[125]

Under NNIC's management, Terminal 4 temporarily closed on November 6, 2024, to give way for major renovations until February 2025. As such, AirSWIFT, Cebgo, and Sunlight Air relocated to Terminal 2.[126]

Structures and facilities

[edit]

Runways

[edit]
The airport's original runway, 13/31.

NAIA's primary runway is 3,737 meters (12,260 ft) long and 60 meters (200 ft) wide,[127] running at 061°/241° (designated as Runway 06/24). Its secondary runway is 2,258 meters (7,408 ft) long and 45 meters (148 ft) wide,[128] running at 136°/316° (designated as Runway 13/31). The primary runway was oriented at 06/24 to harness the southeast and southwest winds. Of the 550 daily flights, 100 take the secondary runway. It mainly caters to private planes and narrowbody aircraft such as the ATR 72-500, Airbus A320, and Airbus A321, and acts as the main runway of the NAIA Terminal 4.[129]

Runway 13/31 closed in 2020 for rehabilitation.[130] The runway was reopened on February 16, 2021, along with a newly constructed taxiway.[131]

Third runway plan

[edit]

In 2014, Transportation and Communications Secretary Joseph Abaya proposed a new runway adjacent to the existing Runway 06/24.[132] The proposed runway has a length of 2,100 meters (6,900 ft) that could allow the landing of an Airbus A320 and increase capacity from 40 planes per hour to 60–70.[133] A Dutch consultant hired by the government also suggested to build another terminal to cause less disruptions to the general public.[134]

Previously, the Japan International Cooperation Agency proposed Sangley Point in Cavite as the site of an international airport serving the Greater Manila Area, meaning Sangley could serve as NAIA's third runway.[135]

Maintenance

[edit]
Aircraft of Philippine Airlines parked next to the maintenance hangars of Lufthansa Technik Philippines

Lufthansa Technik Philippines (LTP) (formerly PAL Technical Center) was founded in 2000 as a joint venture of German firm Lufthansa Technik (51%) and Philippine aviation service provider MacroAsia Corporation (49%). Lufthansa Technik Philippines offers customers aircraft maintenance, repair, and overhaul (MRO) services.

The company performs maintenance checks for the Airbus A320 family and A330/A340 aircraft. Seven hangar bays and workshops provide industry standard maintenance, major modifications, cabin reconfigurations, engine maintenance, and painting for the A320 family, A330/A340, as well as the Boeing 747-400 and 777 aircraft. A new widebody hangar was recently added to meet the increasing demand for A330/A340 maintenance.

The company also opened an Airbus A380 maintenance hangar to allow the aircraft to be repaired at the airport facility.[136][137] It also provides technical and engineering support for the entire Philippine Airlines fleet and other international airline fleets.[138]

Aviation Partnership (Philippines) Corporation is Cebu Pacific third-line maintenance. It was a former joint venture of SIA Engineering Company (51%) and Cebu Pacific Air (49%) until November 2020 when Cebu Pacific decide to take 100% ownership of the company. It provides line maintenance, light aircraft checks, technical ramp handling, and other services to Cebu Pacific Air and third-party airline customers.

Training

[edit]

Philippine Airlines (PAL) operates the PAL Learning Center within the airport's premises. The center includes training facilities for pilots and cabin crew, catering services, a data center, and an Airbus A320 flight simulator.[139]

DHL

[edit]

The airport is a gateway facility for DHL. On March 12, 2006, the company opened its first quality control center.[140]

Airlines and destinations

[edit]

Passenger

[edit]
AirlinesDestinations
Aero K Cheongju
AirAsia Kuala Lumpur–International
AirSWIFT Busuanga, El Nido, Sicogon, Tablas
Air China Beijing–Capital, Chengdu–Tianfu
Air France Paris–Charles de Gaulle (resumes December 8, 2024)[141]
Air Niugini Port Moresby
All Nippon Airways Tokyo–Haneda, Tokyo–Narita
Asiana Airlines Seoul–Incheon
Cathay Pacific Hong Kong
Cebgo Busuanga, Caticlan, Cebu, Legazpi, Masbate, Naga, San Jose (Mindoro), Siargao
Cebu Pacific Bacolod, Bandar Seri Begawan, Bangkok–Don Mueang, Bangkok–Suvarnabhumi, Butuan, Cagayan de Oro, Caticlan, Cauayan, Cebu, Chiang Mai,[142] Da Nang, Davao, Denpasar, Dipolog, Dubai–International,[143] Dumaguete, Fukuoka, General Santos, Guangzhou, Hanoi, Ho Chi Minh City, Hong Kong, Iloilo, Jakarta–Soekarno-Hatta, Kalibo, Kaohsiung, Kuala Lumpur–International, Laoag, Legazpi, Macau, Melbourne, Nagoya–Centrair, Osaka–Kansai, Ozamiz, Pagadian, Puerto Princesa, Roxas, Sapporo–Chitose (begins January 16, 2025),[144] Seoul–Incheon, Shanghai–Pudong, Singapore, Sydney, Tacloban, Tagbilaran, Taipei–Taoyuan, Tokyo–Narita, Tuguegarao, Virac, Zamboanga
China Airlines Kaohsiung, Taipei–Taoyuan
China Eastern Airlines Shanghai–Pudong
China Southern Airlines Guangzhou
Emirates Dubai–International
Ethiopian Airlines Addis Ababa[c]
Etihad Airways Abu Dhabi
EVA Air Taipei–Taoyuan
Greater Bay Airlines Hong Kong
Gulf Air Bahrain
HK Express Hong Kong
Japan Airlines Tokyo–Haneda, Tokyo–Narita
Jeju Air Seoul–Incheon
Jetstar Asia Osaka–Kansai, Singapore
Jetstar Japan Nagoya–Centrair, Tokyo–Narita
KLM Amsterdam[d]
Korean Air Seoul–Incheon
Kuwait Airways Kuwait City
Malaysia Airlines Kuala Lumpur–International
Oman Air Muscat
PAL Express Bacolod, Basco, Busuanga, Butuan, Cagayan de Oro, Calbayog, Catarman, Caticlan, Cauayan (begins January 15, 2025),[145] Cebu, Cotabato, Davao, Dipolog, Dumaguete, General Santos, Iloilo, Kalibo, Laoag, Legazpi, Ozamiz, Pagadian (ends January 14, 2025),[146] Phnom Penh,[147] Puerto Princesa, Roxas, San Jose de Buenavista, Siargao, Tacloban, Tagbilaran, Tuguegarao, Zamboanga
Philippine Airlines Bangkok–Suvarnabhumi, Brisbane, Busan, Cebu, Davao, Denpasar, Doha, Dubai–International, Fukuoka, General Santos, Guam, Hanoi, Ho Chi Minh City, Hong Kong, Honolulu, Jakarta–Soekarno-Hatta, Kuala Lumpur–International, Los Angeles, Melbourne, Nagoya–Centrair, New York–JFK, Osaka–Kansai, Perth, Port Moresby, Quanzhou, Riyadh, San Francisco, Seattle/Tacoma,[148] Seoul–Incheon, Shanghai–Pudong, Singapore, Sydney, Taipei–Taoyuan, Tokyo–Haneda, Tokyo–Narita, Toronto–Pearson, Vancouver, Xiamen
Seasonal charter: Medina,[149] Yangyang[150]
Philippines AirAsia Bacolod, Bangkok–Don Mueang, Cagayan de Oro, Caticlan, Cebu, Davao (ends January 22, 2025),[151] Hong Kong, Iloilo, Kalibo, Kaohsiung, Kota Kinabalu, Macau, Osaka–Kansai, Puerto Princesa, Roxas, Seoul–Incheon, Tacloban, Tagbilaran, Taipei–Taoyuan, Tokyo–Narita
Qantas Brisbane,[152] Sydney
Qatar Airways Doha
Royal Air Philippines Caticlan, Da Nang, Nanning
Royal Brunei Airlines Bandar Seri Begawan
Saudia Jeddah, Riyadh
Scoot Singapore
Shenzhen Airlines Shenzhen
Singapore Airlines Singapore
Sunlight Air Busuanga,[153] Cebu
Thai Airways International Bangkok–Suvarnabhumi
Turkish Airlines Istanbul
United Airlines Guam, Koror, San Francisco
Vietnam Airlines Hanoi, Ho Chi Minh City
XiamenAir Quanzhou, Xiamen
Zipair Tokyo Tokyo–Narita

Cargo

[edit]
AirlinesDestinations
Air Hong Kong Hong Kong
ANA Cargo Tokyo–Narita[154]
Central Airlines Quanzhou, Shenzhen, Wenzhou, Yiwu, Zhangjiajie
China Airlines Cargo Singapore, Taipei–Taoyuan
FedEx Express Shenzhen
Hong Kong Air Cargo Hong Kong
Korean Air Cargo Seoul–Incheon, Singapore
Longhao Airlines Ningbo, Shenzhen, Zhengzhou
MASkargo Kuala Lumpur–International
SF Airlines Shenzhen
XiamenAir Xiamen
YTO Cargo Airlines Hangzhou, Shenzhen, Wenzhou
  • Philippine Airlines also maintains integrated airport ground handling services, cargo operations and a full catering service for it and other airlines.[155] This is composed of PAL Airport Services, Philippine Airlines Cargo and the PAL Inflight Center.
  • Based at both the Centennial Terminal (Terminal 2) and International Cargo Terminal of Ninoy Aquino International Airport, PAL Airport Services offers ground handling for seven international airlines calling at Manila, while Philippine Airlines Cargo processes and ships an average of 200 tonnes of Manila publications and 2 tonnes of mail daily throughout the country and 368 tonnes of cargo abroad daily.

Statistics

[edit]

Data from Airports Council International[156] and the Manila International Airport Authority.[1][157][2]

Annual passenger traffic at MNL airport. See Wikidata query.
Year Passengers % change Aircraft movements % change Cargo volume (in tonnes) % change
2003 12,955,809 Steady — — — —
2004 15,186,521 Increase 17.2 — — — —
2005 16,216,031 Increase 6.8 — — — —
2006 17,660,697 Increase 8.9 — — — —
2007 20,467,627 Increase 15.9 — — — —
2008 22,253,158 Increase 8.7 — — — —
2009 24,108,825 Increase 8.3 186,966 Steady 348,994.25 Steady
2010 27,119,899 Increase 12.5 200,107 Increase 7.03 425,382.71 Increase 21.89
2011 29,552,264 Increase 9.0 217,743 Increase 8.81 410,377.05 Decrease 3.53
2012 31,878,935 Increase 7.9 235,517 Increase 8.16 460,135.15 Increase 12.12
2013 32,865,000 Increase 3.1 237,050 Increase 0.65 457,077.17[e] Decrease 0.66
2014 34,015,169 Increase 3.5 236,441 Decrease 0.26 520,402.63 Increase 13.85
2015 36,681,601 Increase 7.84 249,288 Increase 5.43 586,890.53 Increase 12.78
2016 39,516,782 Increase 7.73 258,313 Increase 3.62 630,165.69 Increase 7.37
2017 42,022,484 Increase 6.34 258,366 Increase 0.02 662,256.99 Increase 5.09
2018 45,082,544 Increase 7.28 259,698 Increase 0.52 738,697.94 Increase 11.54
2019 47,898,046 Increase 6.25 277,530 Increase 6.87 721,708.09 Decrease 2.30
2020 11,145,614 Decrease 76.73 91,067 Decrease 67.19 533,955.78 Decrease 26.01
2021 8,015,385 Decrease 28.09 121,095 Increase 24.8 588,370.92 Increase 10.19
2022 30,961,467 Increase 286.28 246,724 Increase 50.92 402,732.26 Decrease 31.55
2023 45,299,607 Increase 46.31 270,911 Increase 9.80 485,879.38 Increase 20.65

Ground transport

[edit]

Inter-terminal transport

[edit]

NNIC operates a landside shuttle service between all terminals for passengers making connections.[159]

UBE Express "Route 43/PITX-NAIA Loop" buses operate services between the airport terminals and Parañaque Integrated Terminal Exchange (PITX). The inbound route travels from Terminal 3 to PITX via Terminal 4, Terminal 2 and Terminal 1. The outbound route travels from PITX to Terminal 3 via Terminal 1, Terminal 2 and Terminal 4.

Philippine Airlines operates an airside shuttle service between Terminals 1, 2, and 3.

Cebu Pacific operates an airside shuttle service between Terminals 3 and 4.

Local connections

[edit]

Bus

[edit]
See also: Premium Point-to-Point Bus Service

UBE Express provides service to/from Manila, Makati, Muntinlupa, Quezon City, Pasay and Parañaque, all in Metro Manila, and Santa Rosa, in Laguna. The service stops at JAM Liner, Philtranco and Victory Liner terminals in Pasay for passengers going to/coming from the provinces of Northern and Southern Luzon. Passengers load exclusively at Terminal 3 and drop-off at any of the four terminals.

Genesis Transport provides service to/from Clark International Airport. Saulog Transit provides service to/from Sangley Point Airport. HM Transport provides service to/from LRT Line 1's EDSA station and MRT Line 3's Taft Avenue station.

City buses provide service to/from Parañaque Integrated Terminal Exchange, Diliman in Quezon City, and Balagtas and San Jose del Monte in Bulacan, respectively. In addition, city bus routes to and from Eastwood City in Quezon City have a terminal in Newport City, which is located adjacent to Terminal 3.

Jeepney

[edit]

Jeepneys provide service to/from Parañaque and Pasay.[160]

Rail

[edit]

MRT Line 9's NAIA Terminal 3 station is scheduled to open in 2029.[161]

Road

[edit]
Main article: NAIA Expressway
The NAIA Expressway is the first airport expressway in the Philippines.

The NAIA Expressway is the first airport expressway and second elevated tollway in the Philippines. It starts from Sales Interchange of Skyway at the boundary of Pasay and Taguig and ends in Entertainment City, Parañaque. Access ramps connect with Terminals 1, 2, and 3 and with Macapagal Boulevard for motorists and commuters traveling to/from Manila and Manila-Cavite Expressway (also known as CAVITEX) for motorists and commuters travelling to/from Cavite province.

Renaming proposals

[edit]

Repeated efforts to rename the airport have not succeeded. In May 2018, then lawyer Larry Gadon led an online petition at change.org aiming to restore the original name of the airport, Manila International Airport (MIA). Gadon said the renaming of MIA to NAIA in 1987 was "well in advance of the 10-year prescription period for naming public sites after dead personalities".[162]

In June 2020, House Deputy Speaker Paolo Duterte, citing the need of the airport to represent the Filipino people, filed a bill seeking to rename the airport to Paliparang Pandaigdig ng Pilipinas (lit. transl. International Airport of the Philippines). The bill was coauthored by Marinduque Representative Lord Allan Velasco and ACT-CIS Representative Eric Go Yap.[163]

In August 2020, Gadon filed a petition before the Supreme Court questioning the validity of Republic Act No. 6639, the law that named it NAIA. Gadon asserted that Aquino was not among the "pantheon" of the country's declared official heroes. A month later, the Supreme Court unanimously denied the petition to nullify the law for lack of merit.[164]

In April 2022, Duterte Youth Representative Ducielle Cardema filed a bill returning the airport to its original name, claiming the name should not have been "politicized in the first place".[165] Cardema had the bill refiled in July 2022.[166]

In June 2022, Negros Oriental 3rd district Representative Arnolfo Teves Jr. filed a bill renaming the airport to Ferdinand E. Marcos International Airport after former President Ferdinand Marcos Sr., who authorized the airport's rehabilitation and development through an executive order in 1972.[167] Teves stressed that it is "more appropriate to rename it to the person who has contributed to the idea and execution of the said noble project".[168] The bill drew criticism from former senator Franklin Drilon, who said that the renaming would entail historical revisionism.[169]

In February 2024, Transportation Secretary Jaime Bautista said that renaming the airport was not included in the privatization proposals of the San Miguel Corporation-SAP and Company Consortium, which won the bid to operate and maintain the airport.[170]

Accidents and incidents

[edit]
  • On July 25, 1971, a Pan American World Airways Boeing 707-321C named "Clipper Rising Sun" was on a cargo flight from San Francisco to Saigon. While on a VOR/DME approach onto Manila runway 24, the aircraft struck Mount Kamunay at an altitude of 770 meters (2,525 ft). The four occupants were killed.[171]
  • On November 15, 1974, an Orient Air System and Integrated Services Douglas C-47A registered RP-C570 was damaged beyond repair after a forced landing in a paddy field shortly after take-off following failure of the starboard engine. One of the eight people on board was killed.[172]
  • On February 7, 1980, a China Airlines Boeing 707 from Taipei Chiang Kai-Shek International Airport operating as Flight 811 undershot the runway on landing and caught fire, causing two fatalities.[173]
  • On September 15, 1981, a Korean Airlines Boeing 747 originating from Seoul, South Korea, and bound for Zürich, Switzerland, overshot the runway during takeoff and hit the airport perimeter fence, with its nose blocking traffic on the service road of South Luzon Expressway. The plane had a one-hour layover in Manila when the accident happened. Forty of the 332 passengers and 20 crew were injured.[174][175]
  • On December 13, 1983, a Philair Douglas C-47B registered RP-C287 crashed shortly after takeoff following an engine failure. The aircraft was on a non-scheduled passenger flight. All ten people on board survived.[176]
  • On April 28, 1989, a MATS Douglas C-47A registered RP-C81 crashed shortly after takeoff on a non-scheduled domestic passenger flight to Roxas Airport following an engine failure. MATS did not have a licence to fly passengers. Seven of the 22 passengers were killed. The aircraft had earlier made a forced landing on a taxiway.[177]
  • On May 6, 1989, a Manila Aero Transport System (MATS) Douglas C-47A registered RP-C82 crashed on takeoff following an engine failure. The aircraft was on a domestic non-scheduled passenger flight, although it was not licensed to carry passengers. All 18 people on board survived.[178]
  • On July 21, 1989, a Philippine Airlines BAC One-Eleven operating Flight 124 overran a runway in poor visibility and heavy rain. No passengers or crew were killed but eight people on the ground were killed when the jet crossed a road.[179]
  • On May 11, 1990, a Philippine Airlines Boeing 737-300 operating Flight 143 suffered an explosion in the center fuel tank near the terminal while preparing for takeoff. The fire and smoke engulfed the aircraft before it could be evacuated. The explosion was similar to what happened to TWA Flight 800 six years later. Eight people died.[180]
  • On May 18, 1990, an Aerolift Philippines Beechcraft 1900C-1 operating a domestic scheduled passenger flight bound for Surigao Airport crashed into a residential area following takeoff. The aircraft reportedly suffered an engine failure. All 21 occupants and 4 people on the ground were killed.[181]
  • On September 4, 2002, an Asian Spirit de Havilland Canada Dash 7-102 operating Flight 897 to Caticlan carrying 49 occupants was on approach to Caticlan Airport when the right main gear failed to deploy. The approach was abandoned and the crew decided to return to Manila for an emergency landing. The plane circled for about 35 minutes over Las Piñas to burn off fuel. The crew then carried out an emergency landing with the right gear retracted. After touchdown, the aircraft swerved off the runway onto a grassy area. There were no reported injuries or fatalities, but the aircraft was written off.[182]
  • On November 11, 2002, a Laoag International Airlines Fokker F27 operating Flight 585 took off from Manila runway 31 just after 6 o'clock for a flight to Laoag International Airport. Shortly after takeoff, trouble developed in the left engine. The pilot declared an emergency and attempted to land, but decided at the last minute to ditch into the sea. The aircraft broke up and sank in the water to a depth of about 18 meters (60 ft). 19 of the 34 occupants were killed.[183]
  • On November 8, 2003, former Air Transportation Office chief Panfilo Villaruel and Philippine Navy lieutenant Richard Gatchillar seized the control tower of Terminal 2 around midnight armed with guns and explosives, claiming that they wanted to expose government corruption. They forced out all six air traffic controllers and barricaded themselves inside the control room, causing the diversion of several flights. After three hours, police SWAT teams stormed the control room and opened fire, killing both men.[184]
  • On August 23, 2009, a South East Asian Airlines Dornier 328 registered RP-C6328 operating Flight 624 was hit by strong crosswinds when decelerating after landing on runway 13. The aircraft veered off the runway and came to a stop in the grass. None of the 32 passengers and 3 crew was injured. The airport had to be temporarily closed to tow the aircraft away.[185]
  • On October 17, 2009, a Victoria Air Douglas DC-3, registered RP-C550, crashed shortly after takeoff on a flight to Puerto Princesa International Airport after an engine malfunctioned. All on board died.[186]
  • On December 10, 2011, a Beechcraft 65–80 Queen Air cargo plane en route to San Jose crashed into houses next to Felixberto Serrano Elementary School in Parañaque after taking off. The crash was attributed to pilot error. At least 14 people including 3 crew members on board the aircraft died, and over 20 were injured. Approximately 50 houses in the residential area were set ablaze.[187]
  • On December 20, 2013, gunmen ambushed Ukol Talumpa, the mayor of Labangan, Zamboanga del Sur, in front of the arrival hall of Terminal 3, killing him, his wife and two others and injuring five people.[188]
  • On August 16, 2018, Xiamen Airlines Flight 8667 crash-landed amidst heavy monsoon rains. The 737-800 skidded off the end of the runway. All 157 passengers and crew were unharmed, however, the aircraft was written off.[189] According to Flightradar24 data, the flight aborted its first landing attempt.[190]
  • On March 29, 2020, a Lionair IAI Westwind registered RP-C5880 burst into flames on runway 24 during takeoff. The plane was conducting a medical evacuation mission bound for Haneda Airport, Japan. All eight occupants consisting of three aircraft crew, three medical crew, and two passengers died.[191]
  • On April 22, 2024, a grass fire caused by improperly disposed cigarette butts broke out during dry weather at an open-air parking space owned by the airport located about 300 meters (980 ft) from Terminal 3, destroying 19 vehicles.[192][193]

See also

[edit]

Notes

[edit]
  1. ^ Runway 06 is 3,557 meters (11,670 ft) long with a displaced threshold of 180 meters (590 ft) and 24 is 3,587 meters (11,768 ft) long with a displaced threshold of 150 meters (490 ft).
  2. ^ Runway 13 is 2,108 meters (6,916 ft) long with a displaced threshold of 150 meters (490 ft).
  3. ^ Ethiopian Airlines flights make an intermediate stop in Hong Kong en route to the listed destination. However, the airline has no fifth freedom rights to carry passengers solely between Manila and Hong Kong.
  4. ^ KLM flights make an intermediate stop in Taipei en route to the listed destination. However, the airline has no fifth freedom rights to carry passengers solely between Manila and Taipei.
  5. ^ Excluding figures for general aviation.[158]

References

[edit]
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Further reading

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Wikimedia Commons has media related to Ninoy Aquino International Airport.
Wikivoyage has a travel guide for Ninoy Aquino International Airport.
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